Net Present Value and Internal Rate of Return Assignment

Net Present Value and Internal Rate of Return - Assignment Example Table 1 shows the cash inflow expected to be generated and the cash outflow expected to be incurred should the proposed expansion be undertaken. During the first year, the company will incur expenses to finance the purchase of the new plant and equipment costing 5,000,000. It is assumed that this amount will be a one time expense fully incurred during the first year. This report also recognized the need to recognize the investment in research and development already incurred by the company. The rationale behind this is to fully and adequately evaluate the profitability of the project. It should be noted that in order to come up with a proper valuation, the company should account for all the revenues and expenses generated by the project. Thus, it is inclusive of all the expenses incurred to bring the project in operation. Research and development cost of 900,000 should be accounted for because without it, the expansion will be impossible to pursue. During 2005, the amount of 1,800,000 to cover additional working capital expenses is also included in the cash outlay required. However, management also expects that after five years, this amount will be freed up and can be readily used by other projects. Thus, Table 1 also shows that during 2005, the company will be needing 1,800,000 while this amount will be available during 2010. In the case of the overhead costs, this report decided to use the 300,000 per annum as estimated by the project development team advisor. This is deemed appropriate as allocating 50% of the wages is just an estimate. It should also be noted that depreciation expense will not be included in the computation of the NPV because cash flow is not directly affected by the account. As taxes and inflation are excluded in the analysis, tax shield from depreciation will not be considered. The computation for NPV is shown in Table 2. Since the company is using 14% as the required rate of return for the expansion, the cash flows are discounted at the same rate. According to the computation in Table 2, the NPV of the expansion using 14% cost of capital is (403.47). Table 2. Discounted Cash Flow and NPV for Expansion (2005-2010, in thousand) 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Total Inflow/ (Outflow) (8500) 2,040 1,940 2,140 2,140 3,940 Present Value Factor (14%) 1.0000 0.8722 0.7695 0.6750 0.5921 0.5194 Present Value (8500) 1789.4 1492.8 1444.5 1267.0 2046.4 NET PRESE NT VALUE (403.47) Internal Rate of Return The internal rate of return is the cost of capital which equates the net present value of all cash flow to zero. The IRR can be computed by calculating the NPV at different interest rates. Utilizing this method, we come up with Figure 1 which shows that IRR is approximately 12%. Figure 1 . NPV at Different Cost of Capital Question 2. Prepare an informal report for the Board of

Content analysis - have gun will travel Research Paper

Content analysis - have gun will travel - Research Paper Example The stories were both hero myths and tales of American perseverance and fortitude. The Western hero represented a male ideal that could only have existed in a lawless world, but who represented the organized powers of the American government which was invulnerable to enemies both foreign and domestic. The gun as a source of power was also representative of the technological superiority of American industrialization (Tucker & Tucker, 2008). The United States had undergone great strife during the time that the Western genre was in its height. The image of the Western hero proposed a foundation of historic strength through which the American self concept was reinforced. The following paper will look at the nature of the Western as it related to the national civic imagery through which patriotic pride was built and sustained. The radio program that had been inspired by the television program was a textual promotion of the symbols that appeared on the television program, the might of the American righteousness promoted without regard to authority or law. The radio program Have Gun, Will Travel was popular because of how the American mythologies were built as reflection of the philosophical foundation upon which the American myths have been perpetuated. In the 1920s the radio was the center of the first burst of information consumption in the United States. Both news and entertainment could come directly into the homes of the masses, creating a world that was just beginning to grow smaller merely through access. Ware (2009) writes of several different perspectives on the effects of the radio. Some believed that the radio worked as a medium through which to perpetuate stereotypes, the concept of cultural differences boiled down to indicators through which to identify everyone within a culture. There was also the fear that it would act to flatten the nation, geographical

Spatial-temporal Analysis of Land Market in Urban Fringe

Spatial-temporal Analysis of Land Market in Urban Fringe 1. Research context There is a widespread deem that urbanisation is the outcome of the configuration of modern human society. The 19th century, which assumed to be the era of modernization all over the world, has experienced rapid urbanisation. For instance, urban population has increased from less than 14 percent to more than 50 percent of the worlds population during 1900-2000 and if this growth continues, urban population in the world will arrive at 4.72 -5.00 billion in 2030 (increase of 48.61-57.84 percent comparing to the current population) comparing to 6.835-8.135 billion (18.71 percent) increase in total population and 3.348-3.267 billion (2.42 percent) decrease in rural population. Nevertheless, the devastating situation will be at the developing countries, where the urban population growth is forecasted to be 74.17 percent in 2030 comparing to the current population (Zhang, 2008). Interestingly, maximum of this urban population agglomeration is in largest cities, especially megaciites (Li, 20 03) and these megacities are growing at an unprecedented rate. For example, in 1950 there were only 4 megacities, which increase to 28 in 1980, 39 in 2002; and 59 in 2015 (UN 2002). Then the question arises which criteria define the megacities. Some urban geographers tried to define the megacities based on the global economic power or influence. With the exception of Lo and Yeungs (1998) ‘Globalization and the World of Large Cities, which includes Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Cairo and Johannesburg, and more recently systematic work by Taylor (2000), Lo and Marcotullio (2000), Taylor and Walker (2001) and Shin and Timberlake (2000) much of these works (Friedmann, 1986; Sassen, 2004) have either focused on the developed world or merely mentioned ‘megacities in the developing world (Yulong and Hamnett, 2002). However, an extensive debate has still been going on the definition of megacities. United Nations categorize the megacities with population of 8 millions while Asian Development Bank extends the population limit to 10 million along with other characteristics such as complex economy and integrated transport system. Thus, discussion takes into account the ‘population greater than 10 millions as an indicator of megacities. According to the World Population Report 2001 by UNFPA, currently there are 19 megacities such as Tokyo (26.4 millions), Mexico City (18.1 millions), Mumbai (18.1 millions), Sà £o Paulo (17.8 millions), Shanghai (17 millions), New York (16.6 millions), Lagos (13.4 millions), Los Angeles (13.1 millions), Calcutta (12.9 millions), Buenos Aires (12.6 millions), Dhaka (12.3 millions), Karachi (11.8 millions), New Delhi (11.7 millions), Jakarta (11 millions), Osaka (11 millions), Metro Manila (10.9 millions), Beijing (10.6 millions), Reo de Janeiro (10.6 millions) and Cairo (10.6 millions). Still there is a controversy about the geographical extent of these megacities. Even some of these megacities are growing on forming the urban corridors (Tokyo-Yokohama-Nagoya-Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto Shinkansen in Japan, Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan in northeastern China; and the Mumbai-Pune development corridor in India) and urban mega-clusters (national capital Region of Delhi, Dhaka, and Metro Manila; Karachi mega-urban region, Bangkok-Thonburi metropolitan region, and Jakarta-Bogor-Tangerang-Bekasi region). This continuing growth of megacities is now the burning research topic of the policy makers as well as international communities (Renaud, 1981; UN, 1993) and different policies are already been applied to counterpart this rapid urbanisations in megacities such as China, Egypt, Brazil, Korea, Mexico, and China have promoted different promotional programs (e.g. dual track urban system) for patronizing the medium size cities in their respective country level (Henderson, 2002; Ades and Glaeser, 1995). Still a comprehensive strategy needs to be initiated in order to counterpart the unprecedented rate of urbanisation and urban agglomeration. 2. Overall aim and objectives The overall aim of the thesis is to determine the economic value of land at the urban fringe of a megacity in developing country. Based on the aim, the objectives are categorised into two broad areas theoretical objectives and empirical objectives. Theoretical objectives To examine the extent of influence of urbanisation process, and land acquisition and speculation, by both the public and private sectors, on the dynamics of urban agglomeration or urban sprawl. To examine the changing urban spatial patterns of the megacites due to sprawl and to explain them within the framework of different urban growth theories. To examine the nature, characteristics, and dynamics of urban land and the land market within which land assembles, urban renewal, gentrification and development has taken place. To identify different spatio-temporal econometric methods for determining land price. Empirical objectives To develop an economic instrument, considering both spatial and temporal aspects of land, for understanding the dynamics of the land price at urban fringe of a megacity in developing country To determine the extent of influence of environmental attributes on the price of urban-rural interface lands. 3. Methodology In order to attain the objectives, the research will be carried out by following the comprehensive methodology, the structure of which is given below: The detail of the methodology and structure of the chapters to attain the objectives is given below: Objectives Methodology Organizati-on of chapters Objective 1: Definition of urbanisation and urban agglomeration; reasons; challenges; trend of urbanisation in developed and developing countries; growth pattern of different hierarchy of urban settlements; socio-economic, political and physical characteristics of urban settlements; economic, institutional, and political factors of rural-urban migration; government policies and urban politics in the context of urbanisation and urban agglomeration; concept, nature, characteristics and dynamics of megacities; spatial pattern of megacities; cases and consequences of rapid urbanisation and urban space challenges especially in megacities. Literature review of journal, books and reports of different organisations working on urbanisation and urban agglomeration Chapter 2 Objective 2: Urban land economic theories (such as classical theories, neo-classical theories, new economic geographic theories, and new institutional economic theories) in the context of urbanisation and urban agglomeration Literature review of journal and books Chapter 3 Objective 3: Dynamics of urban land market, urban land politics, actors of urban land politics, contemporary urban land regulatory mechanisms and their acceptability in different contexts, planning mechanisms for controlling land conversion or development at the urban fringe, land acquisition process, government strategy for land ceiling standard and land speculation, actors controlling the land market, impact of land use change on the wetlands and agricultural lands at urban fringe and challenges for attaining sustainability. Literature review of journal, books, reports of different organisations, and government policies, strategic plans, rules, and regulations. Chapter 4 Objective 4: Different types of spatio-temporal econometric methods for determining the land price at urban fringe Literature review of journal and books. Software for Spatio-temporal autoregressive analysis Chapter 5 Objective 5: variables or attributes explaining land market at urban fringe, compatible econometric instrument for drawing the equation of land market at urban fring Application of spatio-temporal econometric model for regression analysis Chapter 8 Objective 6: economic valuation of environmental attributes and its influence on the land market at urban fringe 4. Theoretical framework Various factors are attributed to the urbanisation in megacities such as rural-urban migration (Goldstein, 1990; Chan, 1994a,1994b; Rempel, 1996; Ma, 1999), natural population increase and even the government policies (Lo, 1994; Sit, 1995; Lin, 2004; Bloom et al., 2008) on foreign direct investment (Sit and Yang, 1997; Shen, 1999; Shen et al., 2000), expansion of tertiary industries (Lin, 2002) and economic transition (Gu and Wall, 2007). This section explores the reasons behind the urbanisation and urban agglomeration in megacities, and spatial patterns of megacities. Economic development There is a significant positive correlation between the economic development and urbanisation (Henderson, 2003), which can better be explained by the hypothesis of Williamson (1965) (Hansen, 1990). Due to the economic development of the city, the significant amount of industries are concentrated within the city core and this upshots in development of knowledge, skills, and economic infrastructure which leads to development of physical structures such as transport and communications. This physical development make obligatory to the investors or manufacturers to recalculate the cost-benefit analysis of the geographical locations of their industries taking into account the external and internal economies of scale- resulting in urban expansion or deconcentration of industries from the urban core (El-Shakhs, 1972; Alonso, 1980; Wheaton and Shishido, 1981; Junius, 1999; Davis and Henderson, 2003; Barro and Sala-I-Martin, 1991, 1992; Kuznets, 1966; Abramovitz, 1989; Easterlin, 2000). This a rgument is vivid by reviewing different literatures on the economic growth and urbanisation in megacities (Aguilar and Ward, 2003; Firman, 1997; Fanni, 2006). However, the basic assumption of urbanisation is the rural-urban migration. According to the western economists, urbanisation/ rural-urban migration is the resultant of increase in the productivity of agricultural sector and the increasing demand for labour needed by an expanding industrial sector. This economic model was adopted for the western economics, which was later tried to adopt in the urbanisation pattern of the third world countries by Lewis (1994). Nevertheless, the increasing rural-urban migration, despite the high unemployment and underemployment situation in urban areas of developing countries, raises the question of its validity. Later on, comparative evaluation of expected wage rates between urban and rural (by Harris-Todaro migration model), and present value of expected benefits and costs (by Sjaasted migration model) were identified as the key economic factors of urbanisation process. Brueckner and Zenou (1999) and Brueckner and Kim (2001) have incorporate the effe cts of land price escalation due to the migration within the Harris-Todaro model. Furthermore, classical economists (e.g. (Gordon, 1975; Petty, 1683; Yang, 1991; Yang and Rice, 1994; Sun, 2000; Sun and Yang, 2002; Zhang and Zhao, 2004) and neo-classical economists (e.g. Fujita-Krugman, 1995; Helpman, 1998; Lowry, 1966) try to project the ‘division of labor and production, and ‘economies of scale as the basic economic prerequisite of urbanisation respectively. Government policies and urban politics After the economic development, the next significant characteristic of urbanisation in megacities is government interventions or policies (Renaud, 1981; Ades and Glaeser, 1995; Moomaw and Shatter, 1996; Henderson and Becker, 2000; Davis and Henderson, 2003) by sometimes prioritizing the megacities over other cities during decisive policymaking (Fujita et al., 1999). This may cause because of their political significance and interest of the elites and bureaucrats (such as in Bangkok, Mexico City, Jakarta, and Paris, Sà £o Paulo). For promoting economic development in the megacities, the government (either national or local) of concerned countries sometime has taken promotion strategies such as in Shanghai, China (Cai, 1995; Han, 2000; Fu, 2001); Jakarta, Indonesia (Firman, 2000; Goldblum and Wong, 2000; Henderson and Kuncoro, 1996; Kaiser, 1999); Manila, Philippines (Kelly, 2003; Bankoff, 1996; Sidel, 1999); Mumbai and Delhi, India (Valerie, 1999); Cairo, Egypt (Sutton and Fahmi, 200 1); and even in London, Paris and New York (Lever, 1997; Short and Kim, 1999; Tickell, 1998).. However, the impact of dynamic government polices on urbanisation and urban agglomeration is most acute in China such as ‘Socialist Economic theory based urban-biased Hukou system during the ‘pre-reform period (Oi, 1993; Naughton, 1996; Zhang and Zhao, 2004; Chan, 1994a, 1996; Gu and Shen, 2003; Sit, 1995; Harrison, 1972; Murphey, 1974; Ma, 1976; Nolan and White, 1984; Prybyla, 1987; Kirkby, 1985; Kang, 1993; Chan, 1994b; Liu, 1999; Ma and Fan, 1994; Buck, 1981; Parish, 1987; Ofer, 1977; Konrad and Szelenyi, 1977; Ronnas and Sjoberg, 1993; Sjoberg, 1999; Kirkby, 1985; Kang, 1993; Chan, 1994b; Solinger, 1999; Lieberthal, 1995; Fallenbuchl, 1977; Zhang and Zhao, 1998; National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2000; Konrad and Szelenyi, 1977; Ofer, 1977, 1980; Musil, 1980; Murray and Szelenyi, 1984), especially in China (Cell, 1979; Orleans, 1982; Whyte, 1983; Ran and Berry, 1989; Ebanks and Cheng, 1990; Yu, 1995; Tang, 1997; Song and Timberlake, 1996; Lin, 1998; Dong and Putt erman, 2000). Later on, ‘post-reform policy also boosted the urbanisation by encouraging the foreign and private investments in megacities (Banister and Taylor, 1989; Shen and Spence, 1995; Shen, 2002; Shen et al., 2006). However, the national or local government is not solely responsible for urbanisation, urban development as well as urban expansion. Then the question is: Who runs the cities? Government interventions or policies in the urban strategic planning for political significance and interest of the elites and bureaucrats are proverbial in the cities of both developed and developing world (Renaud, 1981; Ades and Glaeser, 1995; Moomaw and Shatter, 1996; Henderson and Becker, 2000; Davis and Henderson, 2003). This is why; urban theorists are focusing on urban politics rather than on economic attributes in formulating state policies for urban development (Sites, 1997; Cockburn, 1977; Castells, 1979; Stone, 1993; 1998). Nevertheless, the influence of urban politics in urban planning priorities in different parts of the world is very complicated because urban politics are viewed from different perspectives. State-centred perspective argued for key role of government, autonomy of the state or the lo cal state and pre-eminence of political attributes in strategic planning (Steinmo, 1989; King, 1995; Thornley, 1998; Evans et al., 1985; Gurr and King, 1987), while coalition politics (Stone, 1987, 1989, 1993; Sites, 1997; Elkin, 1987; Harding, 1994; Gurr and King, 1987; Turner, 1992; DiGaetano and Klemanski, 1993; Orren and Skowronek, 1994) argued for public-private partnership for implementing planning strategies because either for the vulnerability of local government in inter-city economic competition or for the division of labour. This is why; various urban theorists (Park and Burgess, 1925; Dahl; 1967; Wirth, 1969; Jacobs; 1969; 1984; Saunders, 1983; Rae, 2004), who tried to entangle urban politics within their own theories, either failed or misinterpret the urban planning practices. The basic controversy of urban politics lies within two distinct definitions of community power (Polsby, 1980; Harding, 1995; Judge, 1995) power within communities and the power of communities (Harding, 1997). The first is concerned with ‘social production and ‘power to while the latter on is with ‘social control and ‘power over (Stone, 1989). ‘Power within communities, also known as ‘urban regime prompts integration or political coalition of civic groups and public institutions (Dowding et al. 1999; Shefter, 1985; Elkin, 1987; Stone and Sanders, 1987; Mollenkopf, 1992; Turner, 1992; Di Gaetano and Klemanski, 1993; Davies 2001, 2003; Stone, 1989, 2002, 2005; Peck and Tickell, 1995) at different levels of intensity and clarity (Stone, 2005) for economic development and physical regeneration or gentrification (Harding, 1997; Elkin, 1987; Stone and Sanders, 1987; Stone, 1989) and urban growth machines (Molotch, 1976, 1990; Logan and Molotch, 1987; Mo lotch and Logan, 1990). On the other hand, ‘power of communities is more concerned about the acting power of the actors rather than coalitions and is defined by elite and pluralist theories. Beyond the community power debate, another significant factor of citys strategic planning is the politics of globalization (Harding, 1997), which strengthens subnational autonomy and declines national importance (Ohmae, 1993). This can be elucidated by evaluating the role of business sectors on the local civic life of US and European cities. For instance, business-sectors of US cities are remarkably organized, who have strong influence on land ownership and land use planning, taxation and revenue distribution, private credit and public borrowing (Stone, 2005), election campaigns of local as well as national political leaders (Elkin, 1987) and resulting in they are within the governing system. Furthermore, the weaker capital investment by local government has persuaded for effective regime (Davis, 2003). Encouraged by the successful history of urban regime in US, Thatcher government took an ambitious initiative to install this US policy within new dimension of urban regeneration partnerships in UK (Berger and Foster, 1982; Boyle, 1985; Ward, 1996; Wolman, 1992) without resolving three questions What will be the role of development coalitions in the city politics as a whole? What types of private-sector act ivities will lead business-sector involvement in the coalitions? How can the activity balance between public and private sector be achieved? (Harding, 1997). Furthermore, some urban scholars attempted to exploit the regime concept in the European contexts (Vicari and Molotch, 1990; Harding, 1994; Kantor et al., 1997; Di Gaetano and Klemanski, 1999; Mossberger and Stoker, 2000; Zhang, 2002). The US policy was not possible to adopt in the UK context because of the powerful role of central government in the urban politics (Thornley, 1998), lack of bargaining power of urban government, reluctance of local business actors in coalitions (Peck and Tickell, 1995; Davis, 2003). This is why; the attempt has been resulted in different collaborative mechanisms, which were explained by different theories such as Rhodes and Marsh (1992) model of policy network analysis by Stoker and Mossberger (1994), integration of regulation and regime theory by Harding (1994) and Lauria (1997). Urban politics in the context of developing countries (e.g. Brazil, Mexico, Nigeria, Egypt, Indonesia, Philippines, Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan) are almost similar to the politics of UK rather stronger role of national government and local government. Either military government or monarch or autocrats reined most of these countries throughout the major portion of their history after independence and they have a close tie with the business elites and bureaucrats. Eventually, the business elites and bureaucrats are influencing the urban policy agendas behind the scene. Nevertheless, the context of socialist China is quite complicated, which can be categorized within pre-reform era (before 1978) and post-reform era (from 1978 till today). Urban politics during the pre-reform period was solely contracted by the national government. After the reform policy, the national government had decentralize their economic and political powers among the local government and influential actors. H owever, the interesting thing is that ‘a clever fox is hiding inside the reform policy by controlling the property ownership, leaving the economic burden to the local government, strongly linking the vertical tie at the government level. Locational economies of production and class segregation The urbanisation of a city can be a consequence of social division of labour and industrial diversification (Harvey, 1973; Henderson, 2002; Scott, 1986; Weber, 1899; Haig, 1927; Allen, 1929; Perrin, 1937; Florence, 1948; Wise, 1949; Lampard, 1955; Hoover and Vernon, 1959; Hall, 1962; Tsuru, 1963; Sjoberg, 1965; Thiry, 1973; Webber, 1984). This can better be conceptualized by considering vertical and horizontal integration and disintegration of production and labor forces. In case of vertical and horizontal disintegration, the industries or firms try to be concentrated within the core region of a city because various economies of scales (Coase, 1937; Holmes, 1986; Richardson, 1972; Scott, 1983; Pye, 1977) and this was obvious at the earier stage of megacities of developed countries such as New York, London and Paris. On the contrary, when the vertical and horizontal integration of firms or products is strong both in spatial and temporal aspects, geographical expansion of city are more likely to be happened because of internal and external economies of scale (Scott, 1980; Brook et al., 1973; Gilmour, 1971; Abernathy et al., 1983; Piore and Sabel, 1984). Moreover, urbanisation in megacities is dependent on the type of products such as gold and diamond in Rio de Janeiro, coffee in Sà £o Paulo, manufacturing industries in Seoul, tertiary activities in London, Beijing, Shanghai, Tokyo (Duranton and Puga, 2001; Waley, 2009; Mukherjee, 1990; Banerjee, 1985; Glaeser et al., 1995; Lee and Kang, 1989; Lee et al., 2007; Godfrey, 1999). Locational preference Most of the megacities are located at the coastal areas[1] because of their strategic geographical location which offer the advantages of trade, communication, and living environment (Godfrey, 1995; Vance 1990). Presently, 60 percent (nearly 3 billion people) or half of the worlds population lives within 100 km or 60km of the shoreline respectively (Yeung, 2001; Hinrichsen, 1990) and it is estimated that this population will be doubled within the upcoming 30 years among which coastal megacities will contribute the lion share of population (Li, 2003). Furthermore, the number of coastal megacities will be increased to 36 from the existing 16 at the year of 2015 of them 30 will be in developing countries and 22 will be in Asia (Kullenberg, 1999). Sometimes policy makers prepare the economic development plans giving prime focus on the coastal cities (Yeung and Hu, 1992) because it is comparatively less perilous to promote economic development plans in coastal cities because of its good a nd cheap communication and already established structures and physical infrastructures. On the other hand, capital cities get also locational advantages because of the center of institutions, organizations, information and culture such as Beijing (Yulong and Hamnett, 2002), Metro Manila (Cuervo and Hin, 1998), Delhi, Dhaka, and Jakarta. Colonial influence Most of the megacities were under the different European colonies such as British, Spanish, French and Portuguese. Historically, European colonials developed these megacities for their defensive and trade functions. For example, apprehension about French incursions, the Portuguese founded Rio de Janeiro in 1565 (Godfrey, 1999); before Spanish era (1521-1898), Manila was the entry-port of Chinese, Indians and Arabian merchants (Cuervo and Hin, 1998); Bombay, Calcutta and Madras are trade oriented port cities due to British colonial legacy; New York was used as commercial center by the Portuguese colonial. Land speculation and real estate development Land conversion is a normal part of urban development in both developed and developing world (Pierce, 1981; Lockeretz, 1989; Tsai, 1993; Winoto, 1996; Kustiwan, 1997; Yeh and Li, 1999; Grigg, 1995). Nevertheless, land speculation by real estate developers has been observed at an alarming rate in Mexico City, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Jakarta, Metro Manila and megacities of developing countries (Deng, et al., 2008; Arcadis Euroconsult, 1999; Leaf, 1991, 1993; Akbar and Subroto, 1999; Firman, 2000; Bouteiller and Fouquier, 1995; Goldblum and Wong, 2000). Spatial pattern of urbanisation in megacities Megacities had grown to become primate cities at the earlier stage of urbanisation (Parai and Dutt, 1994; McGee and Greenberg, 1992). Megacities now present more polycentric spatial expansion of urban centers and sub-centers following a network pattern that tends to sprawl along major highways and/or railroad lines radiating out from the urban core (Aguilar and Ward, 2003). However, megacities have passed over four stages of urbanisation urbanisation, suburbanisation, counterurbanisation and reurbanisation (Champion, 2001; Van der Berg et al., 1982; Klaassen et al., 1981; Schweitzer and Steinbrink, 1998) ‘cyclic model. In case of ‘urban centre hierarchy, the consecutive phases of urbanisation can be illustrated as a diffusive wave of differential urbanisation (Pacione, 2001; Geyer and Kontuly, 1993) ( 5). The first phase (U) explains the concentration of population in the central city due to rapid rural-urban migration, while the second phase (S) shows an increasing population at its urban periphery and decreasing population at the central city. Third phase (D) shows decreasing of population both in central city and urban periphery and the final stage shows increasing of population at both locations. The first phase (U) explains increasing population in Primary city and intermediate city but decreasing population in the small cities. In the second phase of counterurbanisation (C), reversal situation of first phase is happening after a certain time. In the final, changing rate of net migration is falling down in case of all size of cities. However, the population of primary city will continue to growth for a certain time thereafter it will fall. On the other hand, the population of intermediate city will reach to the optimum level while population of small cities are still growing. Megacities in Latin America Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Santiago, and Sà £o Paulo are in suburbanisation stage because of the continuation of heavy concentration of production activities and population in the urban core and expanding towards sub-urban areas or fringe areas (Farà ­a 1989; Sassen 1994; Pereira 1967; Caldeira 1996; Aguilar and Ward, 2003; Gwynne, 1985; UNCHS, 1996; Aguilar, 1999a and 1999b; Campolina 1994; Parnreiter, 2002; Ward, 1998; Vance, 1990). There is different argument about the urbanisation stage of Latin American megacities such as Townroe and Keene (1984) and Gilbert (1993) claim that megacities of Latin America are in counterurbanisation stage as the secondary city growth is underway with a polycentric urban form suggestive of polarization reversal with the growth of intermediate sized cities leading to a more balanced national urban structure. Megacities of Southeast Asian are also in suburbanisation stage because of the fusion of urban and rural functions that is a mix of rural and urban activities in peri-urban areas and known as extended metropolitan region (desakota) (Gingsburg et al., 1991; McGee and Robinson, 1995; Firman, 1996; Forbes, 1997; Murakami et al., 2005). However, Beijing is still quite monocentric, and its CBD continues to contain a large share of the metropolitan areas total employment, largely because of the centrality of various urban amenities, and because of the concentration of government activities in Beijing (Zheng and Kahn, 2008). On the other hand, other megacities of China Shanghai and Guangzhou are shifting their urban spatial pattern from monocentric form to polycentric form. Lagos of Nigeria is still in urbanisation stage and there are no evidence of meta-urban or peri-urban development (Briggs and Mwamfupe, 2000; Yeboah, 2000) rather city growth is contained within clearly defined boundaries. Megacities in Western Europe and United States are the stage of reurbanisation (Antrop, 2000, 2004) such as Paris (Sallez and Burgi, 2004; Cavailhes et al., 2004), New York (Godfrey, 1995; Preston and McLafferty, 1993), and London (Bendixson, 2004). 5. Research Timeframe for initial 9 months Activity schedule Time Frame Oct- 09 Nov- 09 Dec- 09 Jan- 10 Feb-10 Mar-10 Apr-10 May-10 June-10 Conceptualization Discussion on the context, key features and material sources of the research Chapter 1: Theoretical framework on the contextual terminologies on urbanisation and agglomeration Chapter 1: Fixation of aims and objectives, and development of methodology and research structure Preparation and presentation of 100-days viva Chapter 2: (objective 1) Literature review Chapter 3: (objective 2) Literature review 6. Research Timeframe for 3 years Activity schedule Time Frame 2009 2010 2011 2012 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Conceptualization Discussion on the context, key features and material sources of the research Literature Review stage Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Empirical stage Sample size formulation Primary data collection Secondary data collection Data verification, editing and input Chapter 6: Methodology Chapter 7: Data analysis Chapter 8: Objective 5 and 6 Evaluation and conclusion Chapter 9: Findings Chapter 10: Recommendations and Implementation guidelines Chapter 11: Conclusion Final presentation and submission 7. References Abernathy, W. J., Clark, K. B., and Kantrow, A. M. (1983). Industrial renaissance: Producing a competitive future for America. New York: Basic Books. Abramovitz, M. (1989). Thinking about Growth: And Other Essays on Economic Growth and Welfare. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ades, A. F., and E. L. Glaeser. (1995). â€Å"Trade and Circuses: Explaining Urban Giants,† Quarterly Journal of Economics 110, 195-227. Aguilar, A G (1999a). â€Å"Mexico City growth and regional dispersal: the expansion of largest cities and new spatial forms,† Habitat International 23(3), 391-412. Aguilar, A G (1999b). â€Å"La Ciudad de Me ´xico en la Region Centro. Nuevas Formas de la Expansio ´n Metropolitana†. In: Transiciones. La Nueva Formacio ´n Territorial de la Ciudad de Mà ©xico, (eds.) J. Delgado and B. RamÄ ±Ã‚ ´rez, pp. 147-169. Programa de Investigacion Metropolitana-UAM, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico. Aguilar, A. G., and Ward, P. M. (2003). â€Å"Globalization, regional development, and mega-city expansion in Latin America: analyzing Mexico citys peri-urban hinterland,† Cities 20 (1), 3-21. Akbar, D. B., and Subroto B., 1999. â€Å"Northern bandung area development† Unpublished Paper, Department of Regional and City Planning, Institute of Technology, Bandung, Indonesian. Alonso, W. (1980). â€Å"Five Bell Shapes in Development,† Papers of the Regional Science Associations, 45, 5-16. Antrop, M., (2000). â€Å"Changing patterns in the urbanized countryside of Western Europe,† Landsc. Ecol. 15, 257-270. Antrop, M. (2004). â€Å"Landscape change and the urbanisation process in Europe†. Landscape and Urban Planning, 67, 9-26. Arcadis Euroconsult, 1999. â€Å"Land aquisition and development control† Final Report, National Planning Agency and Land Development Agency, Jakarta. Banerjee, N. (1985). Women Workers in the Unorganized Sector: The Calcutta Experience. Hyderabad: Sangain Books. Banister, J., and Taylor, J. R. (1989). â€Å"China: surplus rural labour and migration,† Asia-Pacific Population Journal, 4(4), 3-20. Bankoff, G. (1996). â€Å"Legacy of the past, promise of

A Digital Nation :: Internet Technology Technological Essays

A Digital Nation Have you ever heard someone say that we live in a digital nation? Do you know what a digital nation is? Well you should know because you are living in one. Our nation revolves around the use of computers. Can you go through a normal day without using something computer related? I don't think so. Many everyday things that you take for granted are computer based, such as: ATM's, credit cards, grocery check outs, and gas stations to name a few. I support Jon Katz's article The Netizen: Birth of a Digital Nation. Our nation would be a totally different place today if the computer was never invented. Computers have evolved incredibly in the past few years. Programs on computers help to make schools more organized and are used many times a day. Today most of the student's records are kept on a computer instead of in filing cabinets. Such as records of shots, attendance, grades, test scores, any problems the child has, and many others. With computers you can pull up a child's file within seconds instead of having to find the file in a cabinet, which could take several minutes. Computers keep all the files organized and make finding things easier for teachers, which helps them to get more things done in their busy day. Many teachers when assigning papers require them to be typed. Typed papers are a lot easier to read then hand written ones. Having a typed paper cuts down on the time needed to grade the papers and makes reading them a lot easier. Before computers, the time teachers needed to grade twenty papers was maybe four hours and now they can grade them in about two hours. Computers allow us to communicate with people all over the world. Thanks to the Internet you can talk with people from other counties and get a response within a few seconds. Instead if you had written a letter you might not get a response for weeks. The Internet also allows people who don't know each other to meet and become friends. Being able to connect to the Internet allows families to stay in touch even though they live thousands of miles away. The capabilities of being online makes things so much easier and faster, which we need, in order to keep up with the fast paced world we live in.

Ethnocentrism Definition Essay

What is ethnocentrism? Are ethnocentric values reflected in mass media? If so, provide examples. If not, why not? Ethnocentrism is when one places a culture, values, and views over that of another culture. This can be associated with American popular culture as the message with any popular trend tends to be a popularity contest. Quite often products are sold based off the insinuation that it is better than any other product out there. For instance, a popular recurring fad is the Michael Jordan shoe, Air Jordans. These shoes have been around for years and have earned its popularity through many communities. The shoe is so popular and exclusive that older shoes from the past are re-launched for those that were unable to get them on the original launch date. The message that is present within the advertisement is that wearing Air Jordans makes you ‘cooler’ than anyone else not wearing them. This can too be applied to any other name brand item such as cereal. General Mills has a message out there that you get more nutrients from their cereal over any brand. This may also be associated with religious and different ethnic groups when one believes that their religion is better than the other based off of their own values and beliefs. Being ethnocentric can definitely drive a wedge between relationships as it is a form of prejudice. One should practice being more receptive of other cultures and beliefs to help avoid conflict and form personal connections with individuals within another culture.

Managerial Economics Chapter 5 and 6 Homework Essay

Part A: A firm maximizes profit when it equates MRPL = (MR) *(MPL) = MCL MPL= dQ/dL =1 – L/400 Therefore (40)*(1-L/400) = 20. The solution is L = 200. In turn, Q = 200 – (2002/800). The solution is Q = 150. The firms profit is= PQ – (MC)L= ($40) (150) – ($20) (200) = $2,000 Part B Price increase to $50: Q = Dresses per week L= Number of labor hours per week Q = L –L2/800 MCL=$20 P= $50 A firm maximizes profit when it equates MRPL = (MR) *(MPL) = MCL MPL= dQ/dL =1 – L/400 Therefore (50)*(1-L/400) = 20. The solution is L = 240. In turn, Q = 240 – (2402/800). The solution is Q = 168. The firms profit is ($40) (168) – ($20) (240) = $1,920 Optimal output of the firm would increase from 150 to 168, and labor would increase from 200 to 240, resulting in a decrease in profit to $1,920. Part B inflation in labor and output price: Assuming a 10% increase IN LABOR COST AND OUTPUT PRICE†¦ Q = Dresses per week L= Number of labor hours per week Q = L –L2/800 MCL=$20.20 (20*.10) P= $40.40 ($40*.10) A firm maximizes profit when it equates MRPL = (MR) *(MPL) = MCL MPL= dQ/dL =1 – L/400 Therefore (40.40)*(1-L/400) = 20.20. The solution is L = 200. In turn, Q = 200 – (2002/800). The solution is Q = 150. The firms profit is ($40.40) (150) – ($20.20) (200) = $2,020 Optimal output of the firm would remain the same at 150, and labor would remain the same at 200, however, there would be an increase in profit to $2,020 to correspond to the percentage increase in output price and labor cost (in this example 10%). Part C 25% increase in MPL: The marginal cost of labor would increase by the same percentage amount as price (25%), therefore the Marginal Cost of labor would increase from 20 to 25. Therefore 50 – L/8 =25 and L=200 Output and hours of labor remain unchanged due to the fact that price and cost of labor increase by same percentage amounts ALSO SEE PART B ABOVE INFLATION EXAMPLE I MADE DENOTING 10 PERCENT INCREASE IN LABOR AND OUTPUT. Chapter 5 Question 12 Page 220 Part A: Q = 100(1.01).5(1).4 = 100.50. Compare this to the original of Q=100 and we can determine that Output increases by .5%. The power coefficient measures the elasticity of the output with respect to the input. A 1% increase in labor produces a (.5)(1) = .5% increase in output. Part B: Dr. Ghosh- per my e-mail I was a bit confused with this question based on your lecture notes (as your notes state that BOTH inputs must change for a returns to scale to be determined) , so I have two different opinions. Opinion 1- The nature of returns to scale in production depends on the sum of the exponents, ÃŽ ±+ÃŽ ². Decreasing returns exist if ÃŽ ±+ÃŽ ²Ã‹â€š 1. The sum of the power coefficients is .5 + .4 < 1, the production function exhibits decreasing returns to scale where output increases in a smaller proportion than input. This is reflected in Part A of this problem where a 1% increase in labor (input) results in a .5% increase in output. Opinion 2- BOTH inputs must be changed in the same proportion (according to your lecture notes). Therefore, in this question I am confused. Only one of the inputs are being changed. Does this concept not apply, and is my original answer incorrect? I don’t see any scale where only one of the inputs are changed†¦As such, if both inputs MUST be changed then returns to scale can not be determined for this question as only L was originally changed. Chapter 6 Question 6 Part B Page 265 (part A not required) Demand is P = 48 – Q/200 Costs are C = 60,000 + .0025Q2. Therefore the TR= 48Q-Q2/200, and the derivative MR function would be MR = 48 – Q/100. The firm maximizes profit by setting MR = MC. Therefore, MR = 48 – Q/100 and MC = .005Q. Setting MR = MC (48 – Q/100) = .005Q results in: Q* = 3,200. In turn, P* = $32 (where 48-3200/200). Chapter 6 Question 8 Page 265 CE= 250,000 +1,000Q + 5Q2 $2,000= Cost of Frames and assembly P= 10,000-30Q Part A: Marginal Cost of producing an additional engine†¦ CE = 250,000 +1,000Q +5Q2 MCE = d/dQ (250,000 +1,000Q + 5Q2) =10Q + 1,000 MCCycle=MCEngine +MCframes and assembly; therefore MCCylce = 1,000+ 2,000 +10Q The inverse demand function provided in the text was P= 10,000-30Q TR = (P)*(Q) = (10,000-30Q)*Q =10,000Q – 30Q2 Obtain the derivative of this function to find MR: MR=d/dQ =(10,000Q – 30Q2) MR=10,000 – 60Q MR = MC 10,000 – 60Q = 1,000 + 2,000 +10Q 7,000 = 70Q Q=100 (profit maximizing output) P= 10,000 – 30Q =10,000 -30(100) Profit Maximizing Price=7,000 Therefore the Marginal Cost of producing an engine =1,000 + 10Q (q=100 from solving above) =2,000 MCEngine Marginal Cost of Producing a Cycle From equation developed above†¦ MCCycle = 1,000 +2,000 +10Q =1,000 +2,000 + 10(100) =$4,000 MCCycle Part B: Since the firm can produce engines at a Marginal Cost of $2,000, the opportunity to buy from another firm at a greatly reduced Marginal Cost of $1,400 would be sensible. MCEngine=$1,400 MR = MC 10,000 – 60Q = 2,000 +1,400 10,000- 60Q = 3400 Q=110 (profit maximizing output) P = 10,000 – 30(110) =6,700 profit maximizing price Therefore the firm should buy the engine since the engine produced by the firm is more than the engine provided by the other firm. Chapter 6 Question 10 Page 266 Part A: Revenue is P*Q. Obtain Marginal Cost function through 160 + 16Q + 0.1Q2 FOC (derivative of above equation) 16 + 0.2Q= MC From the P= 96 – .4Q we can determine that total revenue = 96Q – .4Q2 and the derivative or FOC is thus 96 – .8Q= MR Set MC = MR 16 + 0.2Q = 96 – 0.8Q Q=80 We solve for P by plugging this into our original equation P= 96-.4(80) P=64 Profit = 5,120 (80*64) – 2,080 (160 + 16*80 + .1(80)2) = $3,040 Part B: C =160 + 16Q + .1Q2 AC= (160+16Q+.1Q^2)/Q MC=d/dQ(160 + 16Q + .1Q2) MC=16 + .2Q AC=MC 160/Q + 16 + .1Q = 16 + .2Q 160/Q = .1Q .1Q2 =160 Q= 40 Average cost of production is minimized at 40 units, she is correct as AC = MC (see below). AC = 960/40 =24 MC = 16 + (.2) ($40) = $24 However, optimal output is Q=80 where MR = MC, therefore her second claim of 40 units as the firm’s profit maximizing level of output is incorrect. P = 96 – .4 (40) P=$80 TR = 80*40 =3,200 C = 160 + 16Q + .1Q2 =960 Profit = Revenue – Cost = 3,200 – 960 = 2,240 therefore output at 80 is greater than the profit at 40. Part C: We learned from part a the single plant cost is $2,080 or (160 + 16*80 + .1(80)2). If two plants were open each producing the minimum level of output detailed in part B (Q=40) then total cost would be (Q)*(AC) = 24*80 = $1,920. You can compare this to the cost in part A of $2,080 and determine it is cheaper to produce using the two plants.

Internet Access In The World Essays - Virtual Reality, Cyberspace

Internet Access In The World Essays - Virtual Reality, Cyberspace Internet Access In The World REFERENCES Albrecht, Kirk. Cybersurfers of Arabia. Business Week (1996): 108. Bogert, Carroll. Chat rooms and chadors. Newsweek 126 (1995): 36. Bollag, Burton. Better Internet Access Sought for Researchers Around the World : Industrialized Nations Push for Faster Connections and Uniform Regulations. The Chronicle of Higher Education v42 n42 (June 28, 1996) : pA14-17. Burton, Bollag. In Western Europe, 12 Institutions see the Internet and videoconfrences as keys to virtual university The Chronicle Of Higher Education (Sep.27,1996) : A35-37. Campbell, Larry. Screening out the files. Nieman Reports 50 (1996): 59-61. Das, Malabika. Free Nets. Network Notes #29. Information Technology Services. National Library of Canada. April 30, 1996. Evans, Kathy. Wising up to the Web : Telecommunications Update. The Middle East (October 1995) : p24-28 Essick, Kristi. Smart Cable Service Launced Overseas. Infoworld (July 15, 1996) Johnstone, Bob.Culture clash in Cyberspace. New Scientist 145 (1995):38-41. Kalin, Sari. Global Mirror Search Sites Reflect 'Net Growth. Infoworld (Aug. 26, 1996) Klein, Reva. Outside the Net : Those Who Cannot Afford Access. Times Educational Supplement n4160 (March 22, 1996) : pC28. Kranzt, Michael. China, Wired. Time 147 (1996): 73. MacFarquhar, Neil. With Mixed Feelings, Iran Tiptoes to the Internet. The New York Times v145 (Oct. 8, 1996) : pA4(N) pA4(L) col 1 (20 col in). National Public Telecomputing Network. Community Computing and the Naitonal Public Net Nanny States. The Economist 340 (1996):p34(1) Noble, Phil. International Cyberspacing : Use of The Internet Worldwide. Campaigns & Elections v17 n7 (July, 1996) : p29. Not Too Modern Please. The Economist 338 (1996):1-2 Schuman,Joseph. New Era in Euro Cyberspace Variety (April 10, 1995): 39-40. Stalter, Katherine. Scandi wired for growth: northern territories leading digital media market expansion. Variety 364 (1996): 64. Swinbanks, David. Internet struggles around to connect around the Asia-Pasific rim. Nature 379 (1996): 382. Vatikitokis, Michael. Net police: ASEAN seeks to control cyberspace. Far Eastern Economic Review 159 (1996): 22. Woodward, Colin. Information Technology The Chronicle of Higher Education (June 9,1995) : A21. Bibliography REFERENCES Albrecht, Kirk. Cybersurfers of Arabia. Business Week (1996): 108. Bogert, Carroll. Chat rooms and chadors. Newsweek 126 (1995): 36. Bollag, Burton. Better Internet Access Sought for Researchers Around the World : Industrialized Nations Push for Faster Connections and Uniform Regulations. The Chronicle of Higher Education v42 n42 (June 28, 1996) : pA14-17. Burton, Bollag. In Western Europe, 12 Institutions see the Internet and videoconfrences as keys to virtual university The Chronicle Of Higher Education (Sep.27,1996) : A35-37. Campbell, Larry. Screening out the files. Nieman Reports 50 (1996): 59-61. Das, Malabika. Free Nets. Network Notes #29. Information Technology Services. National Library of Canada. April 30, 1996. Evans, Kathy. Wising up to the Web : Telecommunications Update. The Middle East (October 1995) : p24-28 Essick, Kristi. Smart Cable Service Launced Overseas. Infoworld (July 15, 1996) Johnstone, Bob.Culture clash in Cyberspace. New Scientist 145 (1995):38-41. Kalin, Sari. Global Mirror Search Sites Reflect 'Net Growth. Infoworld (Aug. 26, 1996) Klein, Reva. Outside the Net : Those Who Cannot Afford Access. Times Educational Supplement n4160 (March 22, 1996) : pC28. Kranzt, Michael. China, Wired. Time 147 (1996): 73. MacFarquhar, Neil. With Mixed Feelings, Iran Tiptoes to the Internet. The New York Times v145 (Oct. 8, 1996) : pA4(N) pA4(L) col 1 (20 col in). National Public Telecomputing Network. Community Computing and the Naitonal Public Net Nanny States. The Economist 340 (1996):p34(1) Noble, Phil. International Cyberspacing : Use of The Internet Worldwide. Campaigns & Elections v17 n7 (July, 1996) : p29. Not Too Modern Please. The Economist 338 (1996):1-2 Schuman,Joseph. New Era in Euro Cyberspace Variety (April 10, 1995): 39-40. Stalter, Katherine. Scandi wired for growth: northern territories leading digital media market expansion. Variety 364 (1996): 64. Swinbanks, David. Internet struggles around to connect around the Asia-Pasific rim. Nature 379 (1996): 382. Vatikitokis, Michael. Net police: ASEAN seeks to control cyberspace. Far Eastern Economic Review 159 (1996): 22. Woodward, Colin. Information Technology The Chronicle of Higher Education (June 9,1995) : A21.

Wine Making Persuasive Speech Essays

Wine Making Persuasive Speech Essays Wine Making Persuasive Speech Paper Wine Making Persuasive Speech Paper Halloran, E. ,Halloran, E. (2000) The Home Winemaker’s Companion. North Adams, MA: Storey Books

Chapter Questions

The approach suggesting that psychological disorders are illnesses that have underlying biological causes is called the:medical model is a condition marked by dramatic mood swings. Bipolar disorder The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders uses a checklist of observable signs and symptoms, but this tends to limit clinicians: understanding of their patients. Some theories propose that such as learning or childhood experiences might lay the foundation for psychological disorders. VIC : like poverty and community support systems, can play a role in the development and course of psychological disorders. Social factors The degree to which a behavior interferes with daily life and relationships refers to its: dysfunction. Classification system for mental disorders measures what it intends to A measure. Valid Ursula feels compel to hurt herself. Ursula self harm can be best described as a maladaptive behavior. With the people often predict the probability of something happening in the future based on how easily we can recall a similar type Of event from the past. Availability heuristic Most mental health professionals in North America use the evidenced-based classification system of mental disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders chapter 8 which is an rapidly sprout new connections among each other, a dramatic phase of synaptic growth that is influenced by the infants experiences and stimulation from the environment. Neurons One significant milestone of the seniority stage is or an infants realization that objects and people still exist when they are out of sight or touch. Object permanence According to Erikson, the psychosocial stage from the twenties to forties is called which is time when most adults are creating meaningful, deep relationships. Intimacy vs. isolation. The flex occurs when a newborn infants cheek is stroked, as she turns her head in the direction of the touch. Rooting Children in the stage can be less egocentric and can understand the concept of conservation; however their logical thinking is limited to concrete concepts. Encounter operational proposed that cognitive development occurs in four periods or stages, and these stages have distinct beginnings and endings. Pigged chapter 14 implies that disorders have biological causes. Medical model The treatment approach in which a client works with a mental health professional to reduce psychological symptoms and improve quality of life is allied: psychotherapy can have an impact on the course Of some psychological disorders. Terrors Studying is difficult because its methodology has not been personalized and its use varies from one therapist to the next. Humanistic therapy Approximately how many Inmates in American jails and prisons in 2007 had at least one psychological disorder? 2. Mm evaluates the success of therapies. Outcome research Your therapist tells you that her role in your therapy is to help you achieve personal growth. Your therapist is a: positive psychologist Dry. Astrid is a psychoanalyst. She tells her clients that her main goal is to:Uncover unconscious conflicts. The type of psychotherapy aimed at increasing awareness of the self and the environment is called: insight therapy Sean has a psychological disorder that increases his risk to himself and others. Sean most likely experiences: psychotic episodes. Chapter 15 to persuasion, people pay attention to factors outside the message content, such as the credibility or appearance of the individual who relays the message. Peripheral route People from cultures are less likely to conform than those from collectivist cultures. Individualist Participants in Amalgams obedience study sat at a table that held a control anal for the supposed generation of: shocks Social loafing is more likely to occur in societies where people place a high premium on:individuality and autonomy. The most famous illustration of the bystander effect was the attack on 1964. Kitty geneses studies were willing to administer what they believed to Participants in be painful and life-threatening electric shocks to other human beings. Algiers The diminished sense of personal responsibility, inhibition, or adherence to in social norms that occurs when group members are not treated as individuals is referred to as: identification. Which statement BEST characterizes social exchange theory? We help others when the benefits of our good deeds outweigh the cost. Group popularization is the tendency for a group to take a after deliberations and discussion. More extreme position In a classic study on expectations, administered a nonverbal intell igence test to students in a San Francisco elementary school. The students whom the teachers were told would show surprising gains achieved greater increases on their test scores. Rosenthal and Jacobson and its associated Stresses can have a lasting impact on the development of the brain and subsequent cognitive abilities. Poverty The method for gaining compliance that involves making a small request first, followed by a larger request is called the: foot in door technique Chapter 12 Gender intense physiological demands, the body cannot address any new threats, and some people start to show signs of such as hypertension and arthritis. Sissies of adaptation does not require participants to retrieve information from the distant past, thus reducing opportunities for error in memory. Prospective study Chapter 11 Some aspects of adult personality appear to derive from which refers to distinct patterns of emotional reactions and behaviors observed early in life. Temperament The collection of rules that guide the ego as it negotiates between the id an d the environment is called the: reality principle If a parent is too harsh or lenient about toilet training, the child may grow up with a(n) personality, being rule-bound or stingy. Anal retentive Karen Horned believed that people respond to feelings of helplessness and isolation, created by inadequate parenting, which she referred to as: basic anxiety have profound interpersonal relations, maintaining deep and lasting friends pips. Self- actualities A distinct pattern of emotional reactions and behaviors observed early in life is called a(n): temperament According to Freud, awareness is equivalent to: conjunctions is impulsive and illogical. D According to Freud, one resolves the Oedipus or Electra complex during the: genital stage According to Adler, not everyone is successful in overcoming feelings of helplessness and dependence, but instead develop what is known as a(n): inferiority complex Your professor is talking about how Freudian theory intersects with cognitive theory. He uses the example of the which forms a bridge between memory and conscious awareness. Episodic buffer You are drawing a diagram of Frauds structures. Which structure would appear at the top? The superego re primal images, patterns of thoughts, and storyline stored in the collective unconscious. Archetypes You are writing a paper titled Frauds theory of the emergence of unconscious thoughts in conscious thinking. You are arguing that u nconscious thoughts can appear in consciousness via: process among awareness perspective emphasizes relationships, environmental influences, individual behavior, and mental processes that come together to form personality. Social-cognitive you think about going out instead of studying but then you consider what it would be like to get a poor grade. According to Freud, the helped you come to this conclusion.

Spike Lee's Malcolm X Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Spike Lee's Malcolm X - Essay Example Moreover, his life related events that comprise different aspects from his event filled life was going to get captivated within the framework of the reel life at a magnitude not witnessed by the audiences of Lee ever before. Within the insightful book Spike Lee: Interviews edited by Cynthia Fuchs in an article entitled â€Å"Our Film is Only a Starting Point: An Interview with Spike Lee† by Gary Crowdus and Dan Georgakas, Lee explained his theme behind making a film on the life of Malcolm X, â€Å"Lee explains his primary desire to introduce Malcolm X to young viewers and his awareness that the time limits of even a nearly three and a half hour movie prevented him from producing anything more than a ‘primer’ on one of the America’s most charismatic black leaders † (Fuchs 65). With the level of severe intensity and depth, Lee made a film on the life of a man whose real life events provided the director with enough prudent aspects to frame a complete m otion picture. Thesis Statement The essay intends to depict an introspection based analysis of the film Malcolm X in order to comprehend the inherent themes and the socio-political and religious messages that were meant to be provided by this bio-picture. Malcolm X: Introspection Malcolm X was a movie which included a number of famous personalities such as actors Denzel Washington as Malcolm X and Angela Bassett, Al Freeman, Jr., Albert Hall, and Delroy Lindo. Lee also appears on screen and plays a very small role in supporting as Shorty who is observed to be a real-life associate of Malcolm X. Shorty Jarvis is actually a criminal who has spent time working with Malcolm and is at the same time a jazz trumpeter. It is noteworthy to mention that characters important in the real life of Malcolm X such as Bobby Seale who was the co-establisher of the Black Panther Party, Al Sharpton the Reverent and the future president of South Africa Nelson Mandela, have virtual presence within the pl ot of the film. However, they do not make any cameo appearances. There are vivid hues, sounds and fury which represent the life of the great leader. It was quite hard on the part of the directorial crew to transcript all those events inherent in the real life of Malcolm X to get depicted in the reel phenomena in the course of making the film. The screenplay of Malcolm X, which was a collaborative effort on the part of Spike Lee and Arnold Perl, was drawn mostly from the life events of Malcolm X. These events were mentioned in the book written by Alex Haley and entitled The Autobiography of Malcolm X. The reason behind taking most of the references from this book is that Haley had begun to write this book during 1963. He eventually completed the book following the death of Malcolm X. However, while initiating the project he directly collaborated with Malcolm X himself to write the course of events and facts which constituted the life of the great leader. Furthemore, the book is compr ehensive and very cohesive in nature apart from being one of the most authentic ones because it ponders on the complete course of events which constitute Malcolm X’s life. The film possesses definite contents which are quite significant in terms of both cultural and historical aspects. At the same time, Malcolm X by Spike Lee is not a narrative on reels as it definitely has a strong aesthetic

Weekly Journal #6 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Weekly Journal #6 - Assignment Example As described by Nichols (2013), stories told by people have great power to reshape their future. Additional point is that contrary to Systems and Psychoanalysis views, Narrative Therapy argues that family problems arise when people hold self-defeating views and experience. Furthermore, it is evident that Narrative Family Therapy concerns with impacts of problem(s) and not family members or solutions, as does Solution-Focused Family Therapy. As a counselor, one can find Solution-Focused Family Therapy an effective and reliable treatment technique. The fact that the model discourages concentration on problems of a family but encourages search for solutions makes it instrumental in providing emotional support to the troubled family members. A counselor can use the approach to empower family members open up and propose solutions to the underlying problems (Nichols, 2013). With Solution-Focused Therapy, a counselor can encourage and lead the client family members to talk positive about their situation, which influences positive emotions that can help in easing recovery. One of the insights that the readings of this week unveiled is that family members maintain problems with their negative views of the problems. This occurs when family members unsuccessfully used few strategies to resolve problems and never sought for alternatives. To treat such a family requires that a counselor encourage positive view and perception about the presenting problems. Another insight is that Solution-Focused Family Therapy is slightly similar to MRI in that both view family problems as failure of members to explore and try alternative strategies or measures in solving their problems (Nichols, 2013). Another insight is that Narrative and Solution-Focused Family Therapies cannot work interchangeably to resolve single-family problems. This is because, while Solution-Focused Therapy focuses on solutions, Narrative Therapy concerns with impacts of problem(s) on a given

Why have traditional theories of assimilation consistently failed to Essay

Why have traditional theories of assimilation consistently failed to explain the nature of immigrant adaption - Essay Example In order to discuss assimilation further, it is first important to understand the primary reasons as to: why people migrate, the places where people migrate to and the different type(s) of people who migrate. Once we have looked in greater depth at the issues surrounding migration can we then start to understand the theories surrounding assimilation and the reasons why these theories consistently fail to explain immigrant adaption. As Castles and Miller (2009) state: International migration is hardly ever a simple individual action in which a person decides to move in search of better life chances, pulls up his or her roots in the place of origin and quickly becomes assimilated in the new country. Much more often migration and settlement are a long drawn out process that will be played out for the rest of the migrant’s life and affect subsequent generations too. So, if this process is so complex and long lasting why do people do it? People migrate for many different reasons these include economic, social, political and environmental. The term economic migration refers to someone who is migrating for the purpose of seeking employment or better employment opportunities or to improve their financial position. ‘Economic advantage has long been one of the main stimulants to migration – both for the individual workers seeking economic betterment and for the states attracting workers to fill labour shortages and skills gaps. With globalization and the rapid growth in ease of travel, economic migration has become an increasingly significant phenomenon world-wide. The International Organisation for Migration estimates that there are 80 million economic migrants world-wide’ (Economic migration to the EU, 2005). Economic migration is the most common cause of migration. Social migration involves either moving for a better quality of life or to be closer to friends or family where as political migration refers to someone who is migrating primarily because of

The Introduction of Management Techniques and National Culture Research Paper

The Introduction of Management Techniques and National Culture - Research Paper Example HRM itself is the new avatar of ‘Personnel Management’. Personnel management was largely concerned with the technical aspects of hiring, evaluating, training, and compensating employees. HRM, on the other hand, leaves scope for career building of the employee, development of a professional relationship and the satisfaction aspect. It is no more a mere "staff" function in the organizations. The main reason for attempts to avoid bad publicity is because as per a recent study seventy per cent of world trade—â€Å"including one-third of all manufacturing exports, three-quarters of all commodity trade, and four-fifths of technical and management services trade†Ã¢â‚¬â€was accounted for by the 500 largest MNCs. Changes in almost every aspect of human life are taking place very rapidly in a pervasive and profound manner. This change is engulfing technologies, products, processes, materials and above all, People. Globalization leads the changing scenario, bringing in newer technologies, a new phenomenon of the knowledge worker and of course the competitive era. In view of the competition and globalization companies start exploring avenues for growth within and outside the borderline of their country of origination. Therefore, it is amply clear from the above diagram that companies are required to take care of a number of factors while planning to go global. Expanding business operations beyond national boundaries, while continuing the commitment to local markets requires more complex business structures. Large, worldwide businesses tend to evolve from international to multinational to global structures.

Selection Procedure for the Post of Senior Receptionist Essay

Selection Procedure for the Post of Senior Receptionist - Essay Example The researcher of this essay focuses on analyzing and presenting of the selection procedure of a staff on a position of the Post of Senior Receptionist, that is a tedious task and requires proper planning for the human resources managers. The researcher states that if the selection process in not planned well, discrepancies can occur in the quality of the candidate selected, which can lead to difficulties in the working nature of the health centre. The researcher continues with following statement: â€Å"Hiring the right employee is a challenging process. Hiring the wrong employee is expensive, costly to your work environment and time consuming†. The researcher then suggests and presents the selection procedure that concluds nine stages. Firstly, the head of the Corniche health centre should decide how many stages of assessment will be included and the number of applicants arriving for each stage. The researcher then analyzes eight other stages and concluds that the applicatio ns should be treated with confidentiality, so that further enquiries on them are dealt with ease and promptness. The interview structure was also discussed in details as well and was classified in four different steps, such as introduction, gathering of evidence part, questioning and commenting part and closing session stage. In conclusion, the researcher suggests his recommendations on the topic of human resource management and pesents eight questions to be asked the candidates for the Post of Senior Receptionist position.

Reporting Results Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Reporting Results - Essay Example They represent loans received. The security holder is entitled to repayment of principal and receiving of interest payments. Equity securities reflect ownership of interest and trading securities get a fair value report (Finkler, 2010). For the available for sale securities, they are reported at fair value. Their income excludes the unrealized losses and gains. They are reported as separate equity part that has no effect on the year’s net income. On the hand, not-for-profit health care organizations have all debts and equity reported at fair value (Finkler, 2010). A change in the net assets includes losses and gains. These gains and losses are reflected in the unrestricted net assets unless a donor or law prohibits it. An important feature is that all debt securities are depicted at fair value inclusive of those considered held to maturity by the former group. In this category, focus is not on net income; however, importance is vested on the total available resources. This makes the inclusion of gains or losses in the net income to be

Selection Procedure for the Post of Senior Receptionist Essay

Selection Procedure for the Post of Senior Receptionist - Essay Example The researcher of this essay focuses on analyzing and presenting of the selection procedure of a staff on a position of the Post of Senior Receptionist, that is a tedious task and requires proper planning for the human resources managers. The researcher states that if the selection process in not planned well, discrepancies can occur in the quality of the candidate selected, which can lead to difficulties in the working nature of the health centre. The researcher continues with following statement: â€Å"Hiring the right employee is a challenging process. Hiring the wrong employee is expensive, costly to your work environment and time consuming†. The researcher then suggests and presents the selection procedure that concluds nine stages. Firstly, the head of the Corniche health centre should decide how many stages of assessment will be included and the number of applicants arriving for each stage. The researcher then analyzes eight other stages and concluds that the applicatio ns should be treated with confidentiality, so that further enquiries on them are dealt with ease and promptness. The interview structure was also discussed in details as well and was classified in four different steps, such as introduction, gathering of evidence part, questioning and commenting part and closing session stage. In conclusion, the researcher suggests his recommendations on the topic of human resource management and pesents eight questions to be asked the candidates for the Post of Senior Receptionist position.

Nursing Education Essay Example for Free

Nursing Education Essay This paper will outline the differences in competencies between Associate Degree in Nursing (ADN), and Bachelor in Science of Nursing (BSN) prepared nurses. Then identify a patient care situation describing how nursing care or approaches to decision making may differ based upon the educational preparation of the nurse. The Free online Dictionary (2013) depicts competency as â€Å"The quality of being competent or capable of performing an allotted function.† Here is a comparison of two different pathways to becoming a Registered Nurse: Associate Degree in Nursing (ADN), and Bachelor in Science of Nursing (BSN) programs. Born out of the nursing shortage in 1952, the Associate Degree nurse came in to fruition thanks to Mildred Montag. The Associate Degree program for Registered Nurses is two-three years length. This program does hold academic credit based on clinical and general studies preparing these students to be able to function as â€Å"technical† bedside nurses. At the end of the ADN program students are eligible to take the NCLEX-RN (Creasia Reid, 2011). The Bachelors of Science program is four years in length and actually regarded by the American Nurse association as the original entry level requirement to becoming a Registered Nurse (Smith, 2009). This program originated in 1909. The BSN program is based on evidence based practice, Community nursing, and prepares these nurses for leadership roles whereas the ADN programs do not function to prepare nurses in leadership roles (Creasia Reid, 2011). This is due to the program providing education, described by Creasia Reid, 2011, also on â€Å"Information management, health care policy and finance, communication/collaboration, clinical Prevention/population health and professional values.† (p. 25). At the end of the program these Nurses are eligible to take the NCLEX-RN. With differences in the level of education among RN’s this brings up the controversial topic of: Do the difference in educational levels of BSN prepared nurse and ADN nurse make the more educated BSN more prepared for the challenges of nursing today? There is much more research needed on this topic. Online Journals such as Policy Politics Nursing Practice Ellenbecker, 2011 state, â€Å"Today’s environment of expanding knowledge, the call for interdisciplinary healthcare delivery teams, and evidence of the relationship between nurse education and improved patient outcomes strongly indicate the need for nurses prepared at the baccalaureate level.† (115-125). Studies such as Aiken (2003) depict negative outcomes such as failure to rescue and mortality were nineteen percent lower in hospitals post-surgical patients where sixty percent of the nurses had baccalaureate degrees. The American Association of Colleges of Nursing 2003 provide an entire fact sheet depicting h ow BSN nurses may be more prepared than diploma or ADN to meet the demands of nursing today. They state this is due to the broader span of course work provided in the BSN program. The BSN nurse learns what the diploma and ADN nurse learn but receive a more â€Å"in depth† experience thus allowing them enhanced â€Å"professional development, a greater understating of cultural, political, economic and social issues affecting patients and influencing health care delivery.† (AACN 2003). Nurses holding a BSN education could indeed be more able to provide the approach of looking at the patient as a whole, as well as enhanced critical thinking skills. (AACN 2003). One clinical example that depicts the difference in patient care situation describing how nursing care or approaches to decision-making may differ based upon the educational preparation of the nurse BSN versus a diploma or ADN degree. The issue of â€Å"may† provide different approaches to decision making is appropriate. There are studies that support that BSN prepared nurses are better prepared and studies that suggest that there is no significant difference in care delivered by BSN compared to the care delivered ADN and Diploma nurses. When faced with the evidence that BSN prepared nurses are taught a higher level of education and to utilize evidence based practice (AACN 2003) (Creasia Reid, 2011). The BSN prepared nurse may be better prepared to think more critically and research why they do a task and not just do the task blindly. For instance evidence-based practice provides hospitals with ways to decrease CAUTI from occurring (AJIC 2011). This is â€Å"Catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI). According to AJIC 2011, â€Å"CAUTI are â€Å"common, morbid, and costly†. â€Å"Nearly 25% of hospitalized patients are catheterized yearly, and 10% develop urinary tract infections. Evidence based guidelines exist for indwelling urinary catheter management but are not consistently followed.† (pp. 1-6). Being educated enough to look up what the evidence based practice guidelines on catheters are can significantly increase positive patient outcomes. Furthermore, AJIC 2011 states also that when nurses where â€Å"re-educated† on a â€Å"basic skill† and† infusing best evidence into current practice were important to raise awareness of simple interventions that positively impacted patient outcomes and infusing best evidence into current practice were important to raise awareness of simple interventions that positively impacted patient outcomes.† (pp. 1-6). Nurses who are more educated on reasons behind evidence based practice understand the importance of implementing it into current nursing practice. So it could be said that a BSN prepared nurse is more likely to utilize the practice guidelines that are evidence based. This provides an example how a BSN nurse could be more likely to make a different judgment call than a diploma or and nurse and take initiative to ask the MD for an order to support an evidence-based decision. To summarize there three pathways to becoming a Registered Nurse: Diploma, ADN, and BSN programs. Each has unique qualities. The program that offers a more â€Å"in-depth† education is the BSN program. All programs lead to the same end point of allowing the student to the NCLEX-RN. There are varying viewpoints on whether or not a BSN versus ADN nurse is better educationally prepared for the nursing workforce today. References American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (2013). The impact of education on nursing practice. Retrieved on January 18, 2013 from: http://www.aacn.nche.edu/media-relations/fact-sheets/impact-of-education Aiken, L. H. (2003). Educational levels of hospital nurses and surgical patient mortality. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290 , 1617–1623. Retrieved on January 19, 2013 from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3077115/ Creasia, J. L., Reid, PHD, RN, K. B. (2011). Conceptual foundations the bridge to professional nursing practice. (5th ed.). Ch. 2, pp.1-39. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Mosby. Retrieved on January 19, 2013 from: http://pageburstls.elsevier.com/books/978-0-323-06869-7 Ellenbecker PhD, RN, C. (2010, 08 30). Policy politics and nursing practice preparing the Nursing Workforce of the Future. vol. 11 no. 2 115-125. Retrieved from on January 19, 2013: http://ppn.sagepub.com/content/11/2/115.abstract Farlex, Inc. (2013). The free dictionary. Retrieved on January 19, 2013 from: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/competencies Oman, K. S., Flynn Makic, M. B. (2011). Nurse-directed interventions to reduce catheter associated urinary tract infections. American Journal of Infection Control, 1-6. Retrieved on January 19, 2013 from: http://www.ucdenver.edu/academics/colleges/medicalschool/departments/medicine/hcpr/cauti/documents/TeamPublications/Nurse-Directed Interventions to Reduce Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections.pdf

Innovation in Engineering Technology

Innovation in Engineering Technology Innovation in Engineering Technology India is known in the world for its manpower in the field of scientists and researchers. UNESCO in 2003 emphasized that â€Å"Education in a globalised society should ensure equality of access and request cult al diversity as well as national sovereignty. Globalization and internet has given a new face to our education system. The need of the millennium is to produce trained, responsible and well informed people committed to working for the betterment of the country’s future. It is a proven fact that â€Å"Engineering Education† forms the foundation on which future of the country is dependent upon. The main aim of this journal is to highlight different ideas of innovation in the field of engineering The first idea suggested is changing the education scenario. The main problem in our education scenario is the lack of qualified teachers, infrastructure, research and training-learning process. No doubt steps are being taken to overcome this problem. Now nineteen percent of the budget is allocated for education which used to be 7.7 percent in previous years. Moreover in India only twelve percent students go for higher education after completing their secondary education which is very less than the number in developed countries in which the number is around 70 percent. Another main alarm is the vocational training that needs to be given to a large no of people in our country. For providing excellence in teaching, research activities should be introduced. It is the need of every teacher. It encourages new ideas and innovations and helps in making the educational atmosphere enthusiastic. The education imparted by institutions will not be efficient, unless they adopt research and innovation. Worlds standard Engineering education include research and patenting including IPR related issues. These things enable students to learn skills of innovation and use these new technologies for solving current problems, which is very much essential to live in such a competitive world. Promoting meaningful, engaged learning with the precise use of new technology provides students the chance to interact with the wealth of resources. India is a place with bunch of manpower but lacks in teaching standards and resources due to which the economic growth and literacy rate of India is decreasing at a very rapid rate and the development of the country is almost negligible every year. Education institutions are facing a lot of challenges in providing us with cream students i.e. students who can succeed in this competitive world because of lack of qualified resources and subjects which make the students capable in the present hour. Some of the suggestions for improving the quality of education is firstly we need to change the scenario of education. Qualified teachers should be there in colleges with proper infrastructure and facilities. Moreover in addition to this research activities should be introduced in the studies to make the students capable for worldwide competition. Government should also help the institutions by providing funds for the same and encouraging students to go for higher studies for the future of the mselves and our country. Effective Usage of Libraries through Internet-A View Point Library is the place where one could find all the information needed for any use. All over the world they play a vital role in our life and for our higher education. Internet plays an important role in providing the information for its user in a larger way. One of the newest technology introduced in the libraries for finding out data is the use of computers. Though with this technology information is readily accessible to the users, many a times the information provided is not relevant. Because of this problem many users are not satisfied with data provided on internet. Due to this problem the main objective of the library is not satisfied. In this I am going to discuss some of the problems and solutions for the same. There are a number of users who use the library daily to search about one topic or the other. There are users from different categories and different age groups. These include school and college going students, graduates, scientists, doctors, planners, library staff, and academic staff etcetera. Nowadays people prefer surfing net for the information they require then finding that in books and journals by reading. For this purpose a large number of search engines are available. Whenever users enter any required keyword, search engines show all the queries related to that keyword from their database. Around one lakh links are shown for a single query. But the main dis-advantage of finding information on the internet is that in spite of a large number of links provided to each query, not even a single link is relevant for the user. This may be because for each query the search engines try to find out all the information corresponding to that query. The main advantage of using computers in library was time saving but due to this problem, it has turned into the main disadvantage. Now a lot of time of the user is spent in locating the exact information from the available web pages. The main solution for the above mentioned problem is the classification system. All the information provided on the internet should classify under one area or the other. By using this technique users will be provided with only the relevant data instead of a bulk of waste. Hence surfing internet will provide only relevant data to its users. This technique can also be integrated in search engines. They will generate unique classification number corresponding to the users query and search for that particular information equivalent to that number on the internet. Technology has taken a new face and the necessities of users are changing as per the advancement in the technology. So it is the need of hour to integrate the new technology for the ease of users. Seeking the disadvantage of this new technology we need to rectify it so as this technology proves to be a boon for. Also all the main objectives of libraries are satisfied and users gets information easily and at very fast speed. Challenges in achieving excellence in technical education The main key behind success and development of a society is education. Our country is developing very fast and is also far away from being called developed. India has improved technologically and economically in the field of agriculture, providing nuclear power, space technology, and defense etcetera. Mobile technology is growing tremendously in India. It is the need of the hour that the present generation i.e. the youngsters should be aware of the talents, aptitude so that they can create wonders in their field of interest. Moreover we need to unleash their creative potential by helping them do what they want to do. Due to complete transformation in the technology, there has been an increasing expectation for higher education in order to level up with the present technology. Unqualified and dearth of faculty is responsible for the loss of quality education. The graduates passed out from such institutions have to sit unemployed for large time increasing the unemployment rate of the country. Against this problem the National Knowledge Commission (NKT) has taken steps in order to build excellence in educational system so as to meet the knowledge requirements of 21st century and to increase India’s competitive knowledge and also to improve the management of institutions under Intellectual Property Rights. The center point of quality education and learning is teachers. Nothing can ever replace a good teacher. The core of our engineering education policies should be teacher training and retention. Other thing that effects quality education is capacity and competence building. India has got second position in Global Innovation Efficiency index. India’ s labor force is growing at 2.5% per annum while the employment growth rate is 2.3% only. After teachers it is the role of education institutes in shaping our country’s future. Maintaining international quality of engineering institutions in India is the main aim of ISTE. Under the financial assistance from AICTE innovative programs like faculty development are started by ISTE at express rate. National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology (NMEICT) is a mission initiated for providing connectivity, low cost computing device and valuable contents to all the higher education institutes in India. Proper definition of innovation should be taught to the students as the commercialized way of solving problems with advanced technologies. The global leader for research was India with 159 research areas in the five year span of 2006 to 2010. Engineering education in our country should be designed in such a way so that the engineers can fight with the trained manpower in solving technical as well as social problems. India has got a positive growth rate in the beginning of year 2012 that to with a very rapid rate. It is the most favorable place for the Multi National Companies (MNC’s) to invest. The rapid rate of increasing urbanization and industrialization is acting as a catalyst towards the growth of India. It highlights how all the things stated above can be bring to action in order to meet the challenges faced by engineers in our country. References: R. Murugesan (JANUARY-mARCH 2013).The Indian Journal of Technical Education. Challenges in Acheiving Excellence in Technical education. 36(1), 1-5. N. R. Shetty (JANUARY-mARCH 2010).The Indian Journal of Technical Education. Innovation in Engineering education. 33(1), 15-19. N. Rajesh (April-June, 2013).The Indian Journal of Technical Education. Effective Usage of Libraries through Internet-a View Point. 36(2), 60-62.

Victims of Society in The Outsider and Antigone Essay -- Meursault Ant

Victims of Society in The Outsider and Antigone Both Meursault and Antigone are the protagonists in their stories. They have much in common, such as the fact that they explain their impending deaths as decided by fate, even though each seems to have an easy way of surviving. Both are willing to die for what they believe is right. The concept of fate is quite different between the texts. In Antigone, a Chorus tells you at the beginning of the play that Antigone will die. Antigone uses the excuse of fate to explain her own death to Creon, where as in The Outsider fate is much more subtle. First I will look at The Outsider and Meursault. Albert Camus wrote this novel as a challenge against the death penalty and the society that imposes it. It reflects his existential philosophy including how we do not trust people that are different, that society would rather hear lies then the truth if the truth makes them uncomfortable, and that people with different views to the majority are persecuted. Camus' choice of Meursault, an unusual person, who does not 'play the game', enables him to demonstrate this argument. Meursault's first words are 'Mother died today.' He is very quiet and detached and likes to observe events around him like a spectator, regardless of their importance to him. At his mother's funeral, he does not cry, he smokes and drinks coffee, and this turns out to be the reason for his execution. It may appear that the fact that Meursault is killed because of the way he acts at his mother's funeral is a sign of hubris, much like Creon's in Antigone, who does not respect Polynices' death properly. Camus shows us Meursault's philosophy is a hedonistic one; he acts like each day is his last. His bo... ...ne's destiny is argued by all the individual characters, each arguing only for the side that benefits themselves. The Chorus argues for fate to justify it's existence, Creon argues for it to justify his decision to have Antigone executed, Heamon argues against it because he wants Antigone to live on. These two stories rely on inevitability to draw attention away from the storyline, and bring the focus onto the issues they raise. Camus wished to persuade people that the death penalty was unjust and wrong, while Anouilh wanted to encourage a sense of rebellion among the people of occupied France during World War 2. In The Outsider and in Antigone both of the main characters believe that they are destined to die, becoming martyrs for their author's causes. Bibliography ============ Anouilh, Jean - Antigone, 1944 Camus, Albert - The Outsider, 1942

Jealousy and Love in The Lady, or the Tiger? by Frank R. Stockton Essay

Jealousy and Love in The Lady, or the Tiger? by Frank R. Stockton Women will do almost anything for love, to be loved, or to keep love. That is their mission. When women become jealous, however, the love they want to hold onto disappears, becomes selfishness, and one does not know if it is love anymore. In the short story â€Å"The Lady, or the Tiger?† written by Frank R. Stockton, a semi barbaric princess motions which door her lover, the accused man, must open to either receive punishment or a reward. The punishment is to be devoured by a fierce tiger and the reward is to be married to a lovely damsel of the court. This semi barbaric princess loves the man and chooses which door the man deserves to open. Like many women in love, this princess would not dare to let another woman take her lover away from her. Instead, jealousy takes over and the door that opens will emerge a tiger because she will go berserk to see her man happy with another woman, and will prefer to have him eaten by a tiger and await the princess herself on a heavenly earth. According to Frank R. Stockton, he states, â€Å"How in her grievous reveries has she gnashed her teeth and torn her hair, when she saw his start of rapturous delight as he opened the door of the lady† (150). Obviously, this describes her frenzied actions as the lovely damsel appears at the door on the right. If she leads her lover to the door with the damsel behind it, this princess will be green with envy to see him happily marrie...

Input/Output Organization

INPUT/OUTPUT ORGANIZATION †¢ Accessing I/O Devices †¢ I/O interface †¢ Input/output mechanism Memory-mapped I/O y pp / Programmed I/O Interrupts Direct Memory Access †¢ Buses Synchronous Bus Asynchronous Bus I/O in CO and O/S †¢ †¢ †¢ Programmed I/O Interrupts DMA (Direct memory Access) A bus is a shared communication link, which uses one , set of wires to connect multiple subsystems. The two major advantages of the bus organization are versatility and low cost. Accessing I/O Devices Most modern computers use single bus arrangement for connecting I/O devices to CPU & Memory †¢ The bus enables all the devices connected to it to exchange information †¢ Bus consists of 3 set of lines : Address, Data, Control †¢ Processor places a particular address (unique for an I/O Dev. ) on address lines †¢ Device which recognizes this address responds to the commands issued on the Control lines †¢ Processor requests for either Read / Write †¢ The data will be placed on Data lines Hardware to connect I/O devices to b t bus Interface Circuit – Address Decoder – Control Circuits – Data registers – Status registers †¢ The Registers in I/O Interface – buffer and control †¢ Flags in Status Registers like SIN, SOUT Registers, SIN †¢ Data Registers, like Data-IN, Data-OUT I/O interface for an input device Memory Address Processor Data Control Address Add Decoders Control C t l circuits Data d t t D t and status registers I/O /O Interface Input device (s) p ( ) Input Output mechanism h i †¢ Memory mapped I/O †¢ Programmed I/O †¢ Interrupts †¢ DMA (Direct memory Access)A bus generally contains a set of control lines and a set of data lines. The control lines are used to signal requests and acknowledgments, and to indicate what type of information is on the data lines. The control lines are used to indicate what the bus contains and to implement the bus p rotocol. The data lines of the bus carry information between the source and the destination. This information may consist of data, complex commands, or addresses. Buses are traditionally classified as processor-memory di i ll l ifi d buses or I/O buses or special purposed buses (Graphics, etc. ).Processor memory buses are short, generally high speed, and matched to the memory system so as to maximize memoryprocessor bandwidth. I/O b buses, b contrast, can be lengthy, can have many by t t b l th h types of devices connected to them, and often have a wide range in the data bandwidth of the devices connected to them. I/O buses do not typically interface directly to the memory but use either a processor-memory or a backplane bus to connect to memory. The major disadvantage of a bus is that it creates a communication bottleneck possibly limiting the maximum I/O bottleneck, throughput.When I/O must pass through a single bus, the bus bandwidth of that bus limits the maximum I/O throughput. Reason why b R h bus d i design is so difficult : i diffi lt – the maximum bus speed is largely limited by physical factors: the length of the bus and the number of devices. These physical limits prevent us from running the bus arbitrarily fast. – In addition, the need to support a range of devices with widely varying latencies and data transfer rates also makes bus design challenging. – it becomes difficult to run many parallel wires at high speed due to clock skew and reflection reflection.The two basic schemes for communication on the bus are synchronous and asynchronous. If a bus is synchronous (e. g. Processor-memory), it includes a clock in the control lines and a fixed protocol for communicating that is relative to the clock. g This type of protocol can be implemented easily in a small finite state machine. Because the protocol is predetermined and involves little logic, the bus can run very fast and the interface logic will be small. Synchronous buses h ave two major disadvantages: – First, every device on the bus must run at the same clock rate. Second, because of clock skew problems, synchronous buses cannot be long if they are fast. An A asynchronous b h bus i not clocked. It can accommodate a is t l k d d t wide variety of devices, and the bus can be lengthened without worrying about clock skew or synchronization problems. To coordinate the transmission of data between sender and receiver, an asynchronous bus uses a handshaking protocol. Three special control lines required for hand-shaking: ReadReq: Used to indicate a read request for memory. The address is put on the data lines at the same time.DataRdy: Used t i di t th t th d t D t Rd U d to indicate that the data word is now ready on the di d th data lines; asserted by: Output/Memory and Input/I_O Device. Ack: Used to acknowledge the ReadReq or the DataRdy signal of the other party. I/O Dev. Memory Steps after the device signals a request by raising ReadReq and putti ng the address on the Data lines: 1. When memory sees the ReadReq line, it reads the address from the data bus and raises Ack to indicate it has been seen. 2. As the Ack line is high – I/O releases the ReadReq and data lines. g / q 3.Memory sees that ReadReq is low and drops the Ack line to acknowledge the ReadReq signal (Mem. Reading in progress now). 4. This step starts when the memory has the data ready. It places the data from the read request on the data lines and raises DataRdy. 5. The I/O device sees DataRdy, reads the data from the bus, and signals that it has the data by raising Ack. 6. On the Ack signal, M/M drops DataRdy, and releases the data lines. 7. Finally, the I/O device, seeing DataRdy go low, drops the Ack line, which indicates that the transmission is completed. Memory mapped I/O I/O devices and the memory share the same address space the space, arrangement is called Memory-mapped I/O. In Memory-mapped I/O portions of address space are assigned to I/O devi ces and reads and writes to those addresses are interpreted as commands to the I/O device. †¢ â€Å"DATAIN† is the address of the input buffer associated with the keyboard. – Move DATAIN, R0 reads the data from DATAIN and stores them into processor register R0; – Move R0, DATAOUT sends the contents of register R0 to location DATAOUT g Option of special I/O address space or incorporate as a part of memory address space (address bus is same always).When the processor places the address and data on the memory bus, the memory system ignores the operation because the address indicates a portion of the memory space used for I/O. The device controller, however, sees the operation, records the data, and transmits it to the device as a command. User programs are p p g prevented from issuing I/O g / operations directly because the OS does not provide access to the address space assigned to the I/O devices and thus the addresses are protected by the address translatio n. Memory mapped I/O can also be used to transmit data by writing or reading to select addresses.The device uses the address to determine the type of command, and the data may be provided by a write or obtained by a read. A program request usually requires several separate I/O operations. Furthermore, the processor may have to interrogate the status of the device between individual commands to determine whether the command completed successfully. DATAIN DATAOUT STATUS CONTROL 7 6 5 4 DIRQ KIRQ DEN KEN SOUT SIN 3 2 1 0 I/O operation involving keyboard and display devices Registers: DATAIN, DATAOUT, STATUS, CONTROL Flags: SIN, SOUT – Provides status information for keyboard nd display unit KIRQ, DIRQ – Keyboard, Display Interrupt request bits DEN, KEN –Keyboard, Display Enable bits Programmed I/O †¢ CPU has direct control over I/O – S Sensing status i t t – Read/write commands – Transferring data †¢ CPU waits for I/O module to comple te operation †¢ Wastes CPU time In this case, use dedicated I/O instructions in the processor. These I/O instructions can specify both the device number and the command word (or the location of the command word in memory). The processor communicates the device address via a set of wires normally included as part of the I/O bus.The actual command can be transmitted over the data lines in the bus. bus (example – Intel IA-32) IA-32). By making the I/O instructions illegal to execute when not in kernel or supervisor mode user programs can be mode, prevented from accessing the devices directly. The process of periodically checking status bits to see if it is time for the next I/O operation, is called polling. Polling is the simplest way for an I/O device to communicate with the processor processor. The I/O device simply puts the information in a Status register, register and the processor must come and get the information.The processor is totally in control and does all the w ork. A ISA program to read one line from the keyboard, store it in memory buffer and echo it back to the display buffer, The disadvantage of polling is that it can waste a lot of processor time because processors are so much faster than I/O devices devices. The processor may read the Status register many times, only to find that the device has not yet completed a comparatively slow I/O operation, or that the mouse has not budged since the last time it was polled.When the device completes an operation, we must still read the status to determine whether it (I/O) was successful. Overhead in a polling interface lead to the invention of interrupts to notify the processor when an I/O device requires attention from the processor. Interrupt-driven I/O, Interrupt driven I/O employs I/O interrupts to indicate to the processor that an I/O device needs attention. When a device wants to notify the processor that it has completed some operation or needs attention, it causes the processor to be in terrupted.Interrupts I/O INTERRUPT Processor †¢ When I/O Device is ready, it sends the INTERRUPT signal to processor via a dedicated controller line †¢ Using interrupt we are ideally eliminating WAIT period †¢ In response to the interrupt, the processor executes the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) †¢ All the registers flags program counter values are saved registers, flags, by the processor before running ISR †¢ The time required to save status & restore contribute to execution overhead ? â€Å"Interrupt Latency† p y nterrupt-acknowledge signal – I/O device interface p y accomplishes this by execution of an instruction in the interrupt-service routine (ISR) that accesses a status or data register in the device interface; implicitly informs the device that its interrupt request has been recognized. IRQ signal is then removed by device. ISR is a sub-routine – may belong to a different user than the one being executed and then halted. The c ondition code flags and the contents of any registers used by both the interrupted program and the interrupt-service interrupt service routine are saved and restored restored.The concept of interrupts is used in operating systems and i many control applications, where processing of d in l li i h i f certain routines must be accurately timed relative to external events (e. g. real-time processing). Interrupt Hardware p Pull up Pull-up resister INTR = INTR1 +†¦.. +INTR n INTR An equivalent circuit for an open drain bus used to implement a open-drain common interrupt-request line Interrupt Hardware Supply pp y R INTR Processor Pull-up resister INTR 1 INTR 2 INTR 3 INTR = INTR1 +†¦.. +INTR n GND INTR Enabling and Disabling Interrupts Device activates interrupt signal line and waits with this signal activated until processors attends †¢ The interrupt signal line is active during execution of ISR and till the device caused interrupt is serviced †¢ Necessary to ensure t hat the active signal does not lead to successive interruptions (level-triggered input) causing (level triggered the system to fall in infinite loop. †¢ What if the same d i h h device i interrupts again, within an ISR ? i i hi †¢ Three methods of Controlling Interrupts (single device) – Ignoring interrupt – Disabling interrupts – Special Interrupt request line Ignoring Interrupts – Processor hardware ignores the interrupt request line until the execution of the first instruction of the ISR completed – Using an interrupt disable instruction after the first instruction of the ISR – no further interrupts – A return from interrupt instruction is completed before further interruptions can occur †¢ Disabling Interrupts – Processor automatically disables interrupts before starting the execution of the ISR – The processor saves the contents of PC and PS (status register) before performing interrupt disabling. The interrupt-enable is set to 0 – no further interrupts allowed – When return from interrupt instruction is executed the contents of the PS are restored from the stack, and the interrupt enable is set to 1 †¢ Special Interrupt line p p – Special interrupt request line for which the interrupt handling circuit responds only t th l di h dli i it d l to the leading edge of d f the signal – Edge –triggered g gg – Processor receives only one request regardless of how long the line is activated – N separate i t No t interrupt di bli t disabling i t instructions tiThe sequence of events involved in handling an interrupt request from a single device. Assuming that interrupts are enabled, the following is a typical scenario: 1. 1 The device raises an interrupt request request. 2. The processor interrupts the program currently being executed. t d 3. Interrupts are disabled by changing the control bits in the PS (except in the case of edge-tri ggered interrupts) interrupts). 4. The device is informed that its request has been recognized, and in response, it deactivates the interrupti d di d ti t th i t t request signal. . The action requested by the interrupt is performed by the interrupt-service routine. 6. Interrupts are enabled and execution of the interrupted program is resumed. Handling Multiple Devices †¢ Multiple devices can initiate interrupts p p †¢ They uses the common interrupt request line y p q †¢ Techniques are q – Polling – Vectored Interrupts p – Interrupt Nesting – Daisy Chaining y g Polling Scheme †¢ The IRQ (interrupt request) bit in the status register is set when a device is requesting an interrupt. The Interrupt service routine polls the I/O devices connected to the bus. †¢ The first device encountered with the IRQ bit set is serviced and the subroutine is invoked. †¢ Easy to implement, but too much time spent on checking the IRQ bits of all d evices, though some devices may not be requesting service. Vectored Interrupts †¢ Device requesting an interrupt identifies itself directly to the processor †¢ The device sends a special code to the processor over the bus. The code contains the – identification of the device device, – starting address for the ISR, – address of the branch to the ISR †¢ PC finds the ISR address from the code. †¢ To add flexibility for multiple devices – corresponding ISR is executed by the processor using a branch address to the appropriate routine – device specified Interrupt Vector. An interrupt vector is the memory address of an interrupt handler, or an index into an array called an interrupt vector table or dispatch table – a table of interrupt vectors (pointers to routines that handle interrupts).Interrupt vector tables contain the memory addresses of interrupt handlers. When an interrupt is generated, the processor saves its execution state via a context switch, and begins execution of the interrupt handler at the interrupt b i ti f th i t t h dl t th i t t vector. The Interrupt Descriptor Table ( p p (IDT) is specific to the ) p I386 architecture. It tells where the Interrupt Service Routines (ISR) are located. Each interrupt number is reserved for a specific purpose. For example, 16 of the vectors are reserved for the 16 IRQ lines.Q On PCs, the interrupt vector table (IVT or IDT) consists of 256 4-byte pointers – the first 32 (0-31 or 00-1F) of which are reserved f for processor exceptions; the rest f for hardware interrupts, software interrupts. This resides in the first 1 K of addressable memory. Interrupt Nesting †¢ Pre-Emption of low priority Interrupt by another high Pre Emption priority interrupt is known as Interrupt nesting. †¢ Di bli Disabling I t Interrupts d i t during th execution of th ISR the ti f the may not favor devices which need immediate attention. Need a priority of IRQ de vices and accepting IRQ from a high priority device. †¢ The priority level of the processor can be changed y y dynamically. †¢ The privileged instruction write in the PS (processor status word) that encodes the processors priority word), priority. Interrupt Nesting (contd. ) Pro ocessor INTR1 Device 1 INTA 1 Device 2 INTRp .. . Device p INTA p Priority arbitration circuit †¢ Organizing I/O devices in a prioritized structure. g g / p †¢ Each of the interrupt-request lines is assigned a different priority level level. †¢ The processor is interrupted only by a high priority device. Daisy Chaining †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The interrupt request line INTR is common to all the devices The interrupt acknowledgement line INTA is connected to devices in a DAISY CHAIN way INTA propagates serially through the devices Device that is electrically closest to the processor gets high hi h priority i i Low priority device may have a danger of STARVATION INTR P Processo r r Device D i 1 INTA Device D i 2 .. Device n D i Daisy Chaining with Priority Group †¢ †¢ Combining Daisy chaining and Interrupt nesting to form p priority group yg p Each group has different priority levels and within each group devices are connected in daisy chain wayINTR1 Proc cessor Device 1 Device 1 INTA 1 INTR p . . . . Device D i 1 INTA p Priority arbitration circuit Device D i 1 Arrangement of priority groups Direct Memory Access (DMA) †¢ For I/O transfer, Processor determines the status of I/O devices, by – – Polling Waiting for Interrupt signal †¢ Considerable overhead is incurred in above I/O transfer processing †¢ To transfer large blocks of data at high Speed, between EXTERNAL devices & Main Memory, DMA approach is often used †¢ DMA controller allows data transfer directly between I/O device d i and d Memory, M with i h minimal i l intervention i i of f processor. Direct Memory Access (DMA) †¢ DMA controller acts as a P rocessor, but it is controlled by CPU †¢ To initiate transfer of a block of words, the processor sends the following data to controller – The starting address of the memory block – The word count h d – Control to specify the mode of transfer such as read or write – A control to start the DMA transfer †¢ DMA controller performs the requested I/O operation and sends a interrupt to the processor upon completion 1 Status and Control Starting address Word count In ? ? ? IRQ 30 IE 1 R/W 0 Done DMA interface g g First register stores the starting address Second register stores Word count Third register contains status and control flags Bits and Flags R/W Done IRQ IE 1 READ Data transfer finishes Interrupt request Raise interrupt (enable) after Data Transfer 0 WRITE Processor Main memory Disk/DMA controller DMA controller Printer Keyboard Disk Disk Network Interface Use of DMA Controller in a computer system Memory accesses by the processor and DMA Cont roller are interwoven †¢ DMA devices have higher priority then processor over BUS control †¢ Cycle Stealing:- DMA Controller â€Å"steals† memory cycles from processor, though processor originates most memory access. †¢ Block or Burst mode:- The of data without interruption †¢ Conflicts in DMA: – Processor and DMA, – Two DMA controllers, try to use the Bus at the same time to access the main memory DMA controller may given exclusive access to the main memory to transfer a blockDMA and Interrupt Breakpoints During D i an I t Instruction Cycle ti C l Bus Arbitration †¢ Bus master: device that initiates data transfers on the bus. †¢ The next device can take control of the bus after the current master relinquishes control †¢ Bus Arbitration: process by which the next device to become master is selected †¢ Centralized and Distributed Arbitration BBSY P Processor r BR BG1 DMA controller 1 BG2 DMA controller 2 A simple arrangemen t for bus arbitration using a daisy chain BR (bus request ) line – open drain line – the signal on this line is a logical OR of the bus request from all the g q DMA devices – BG (bus grant) line – processor activates this line indicating (acknowledging) to all the DMA devices (connected in daisy chain fashion) that the BUS may be used when its free free. – BBSY (bus busy) line – open collector line – the current bus master i di b indicates d i devices that i i currently using h it is l i the bus by signaling this line BBSY Processor BR BG1 DMA controller 1 BG2DMA controller 2 Sequence of signals during data transfer of bus mastership †¢ Centralized Arbitration – Separate unit (bus arbitration circuitry) connected to the bus – Processor is normally the bus master, unless it grants bus mastership to DMA For the timing/control, in previous slide: DMA controller 2 requests and acquires bus mastership and later releases the bus. During its tenure as the bus master, it may perform one or more data transfer operations, depending on whether it is p , p g operating in the cycle stealing or block mode.After it releases the bus, the processor resumes bus mastership. †¢ Distributed Arbitration – All devices waiting to use the bus has to carry out the arbitration process – no central arbiter – Each device on the bus is assigned with a identification number 4-bit – One or more devices request the bus by asserting q y g the start-arbitration signal and place their identification number on the four open collector lines – ARB0 through ARB3 are the four open collector lines – One among the four is selected using the code on the lines and one with the highest ID numberA distributed arbitration scheme Assume that two devices, A and B, having ID numbers 5 and 6, respectively, are requesting the use of the bus. Device A transmits the pattern 0101, and device B transmit s the pattern 0110. p The code seen by both devices is 0111. Each device compares the pattern on the arbitration lines to its own ID, starting from the most significant bit. If it detects a difference at any bit position, it disables its drivers at that bit position and for all lower-order bits. It does so by placing a 0 at the input of these drivers drivers.In the case of our example, device A detects a difference on line ARB I. Hence, it disables its drivers on diff li I H i di bl i d i lines ARB 1 and ARBO. This causes the pattern on the arbitration lines to change to 0110, which means that B has won the contention. Universal Serial Bus (USB) The USB supports two speeds of operation called lowoperation, low speed (1. 5 megabits/s) and full-speed (12 megabits/s). The Th most recent revision of the bus specification (USB i i f h b ifi i 2. 0) introduced a third speed of operation, called high-speed (480 megabits/s).The USB has been designed to meet several key objectives: -P Provid e a simple, low-cost, and easy to use interconnection id i l l t d t i t ti system that overcomes the difficulties due to the limited number of I/O ports available on a computer – Accommodate a wide range of data transfer characteristics for I/O devices, including telephone and Internet connections / , g p – Enhance user convenience through a †plug-and-play† mode of operation USB Bandwidths: A low-speed rate of 1. 5 Mbit/s (~183 kB/s) is defined by USB 1. 0.It is intended primarily to save cost in lowbandwidth human interface devices (HID) such as keyboards, ( ) y , mice, and joysticks. The full-speed rate of 12 Mbit/s (~1. 43 MB/s) is the full speed ( 1. 43 basic USB data rate defined by USB 1. 1. All USB hubs support full-bandwidth. A high-speed (USB 2. 0) rate of 480 Mbit/s (~57 MB/s) was introduced in 2001. All hi-speed devices are capable of falling back to full bandwidth operation if necessary; they are full-bandwidth backward compatible. Connectors a re identical. SuperSpeed ( d (USB 3. 0) rate produces upto 4800 Mbit/s ) d bi / (~572 MB/s or 5 Gbps)Each node of the tree has a device called a hub, which acts as an intermediate control point between the host and the I/0 devices devices. At the root of the tree, a root hub connects the entire tree to the host computer. The leaves of the tree are the I/0 p / devices being served. The tree structure enables many devices to be connected while using only simple point-topoint serial links. Each hub has a number of ports where devices may be connected, including other hubs. In normal operation, a hub g copies a message that it receives from its upstream connection to all its downstream ports.As A a result, a message sent b the host computer is lt t by th h t t i broadcast to all I/O devices, but only the addressed device will respond to that message. A message from an I/O device is sent only upstream towards the root of the tree and is not seen by other devices. Hence, th USB enables th h t t communicate with the I/O H the bl the host to i t ith th devices, but it does not enable these devices to communicate with each other. The USB operates strictly on the basis of polling. A device may send a message only in response to a poll message from the host host.Hence, upstream messages do not encounter conflicts or interfere with each other, as no two devices can send other messages at the same time. This restriction allows hubs to be simple, low-cost devices. USB protocol requires that a message transmitted on a highspeed link is always transmitted p y at high speed, even when the ultimate receiver is a low-speed device. device Hence, a message intended for device D is sent at high speed from the root hub to hub A, then A forwarded at low speed to device D. The latter transfer will take a long time, during which highl ti d i hi h hi h speed traffic to other nodes is allowed to continue.Each device on the USB, whether it is a hub or an I/O device, is assigned a 7-bit ad dress. This address is local to the USB tree and is not related in any way to the addresses used on the processor bus. A hub may have any number of devices or other hubs connected to it, and addresses are assigned arbitrarily. When a device is first connected to a hub, or when it is powered on, it has the address 0. The hardware of the hub to which this device is connected is capable of detecting that the device has been connected, and it records this f d hi fact as part of i own status i f f its information. Periodically, the host polls each hub to collect status information and learn about new devices that may have been added or disconnected. When the host is informed that a new device has been connected, connected it uses a sequence of commands to send a reset signal on the corresponding hub port, read information from the device about its capabilities, send configuration information to the device, and assign the device a unique USB address. O d i d i th d i i dd Once this thi se quence is completed the device begins normal operation and responds only to the new address. Read about USB protocols Isochronous traffic on USB and USB FRAME